Taj Mahal
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Tajmahal)
In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO
World Heritage Site. While the white
domed marble
mausoleum is the most familiar component of the Taj Mahal, it is
actually an integrated complex of structures. The construction began
around 1632 and was completed around 1653, employing thousands of
artisans and craftsmen.
[6]
The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of
architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur
Khan, Makramat Khan, and
Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.
[7][8] Lahauri
[9] is generally considered to be the principal designer.
[10]
Origin and inspiration
In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the
Mughal empire's
period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his third wife,
Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their 14th child,
Gauhara Begum.
[11] Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632.
[12] The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal.
[13][14]
The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 and the surrounding
buildings and garden were finished five years later. Emperor Shah Jahan
himself described the Taj in these words:
[15]
Taj Mahal site plan.
- The Moonlight Garden to the north of the Yamuna.
- Terrace area: Tomb, Mosque and Jawab.
- Charbagh (gardens).
- Gateway, attendant accommodations, and other tombs.
- Taj Ganji (bazaar)
Should guilty seek asylum here,
Like one pardoned, he becomes free from sin.
Should a sinner make his way to this mansion,
All his past sins are to be washed away.
The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs;
And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes.
In this world this edifice has been made;
To display thereby the creator's glory.
Architecture
The tomb
The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal.
This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth and
consists of a symmetrical building with an
iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.
The Taj Mahal seen from the banks of river
Yamuna
The base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube with
chamfered
corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately 55 metres
(180 ft) on each of the four long sides. On each of these sides, a huge
pishtaq,
or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with two similarly shaped, arched
balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is
replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely
symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four
minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false
sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.
The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular
feature. Its height of around 35 metres (115 ft) is about the same as
the length of the base, and is accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical
"drum" which is roughly 7 metres (23 ft) high. Because of its shape, the
dome is often called an
onion dome or
amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a
lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed
chattris
(kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the
main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and
provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (
guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The
lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded
finial, which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements.
The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded
bronze
in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of
integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The
finial is topped by a
moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point
heavenward.
Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and
the finial point combine to create a trident shape, reminiscent of
traditional Hindu symbols of
Shiva.
[6]
The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall,
display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as
working minarets — a traditional element of mosques, used by the
muezzin
to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively
divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the
tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a
chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all
share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded
finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so
that, in the event of collapse, (a typical occurrence with many tall
constructions of the period) the material from the towers would tend to
fall away from the tomb.
-
-
-
Main
iwan and side pishtaqs
-
Simplified diagram of the Taj Mahal floor plan
-
Exterior decoration
The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture.
[citation needed]
As the surface area changes the decorations are refined proportionally.
The decorative elements were created by applying paint,
stucco,
stone inlays, or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against
the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be
grouped into either
calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs.
Throughout the complex,
passages from the
Qur'an are used as decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan.
[18][19] The texts refer to themes of judgment and include:
The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads
"O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you."[19]
The calligraphy was created by a calligrapher named Abd ul-Haq, in
1609. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a
reward for his "dazzling virtuosity".
[8]
Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the
inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi."
[20] Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid
thuluth script, made of
jasper or black marble,
[8]
inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly
larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The
calligraphy found on the marble
cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.
Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth,
minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the
surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings
are worked with
tracery of
incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms.
Herringbone
inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White
inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the
white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained
or painted in a contrasting colour, creating geometric patterns of
considerable complexity. Floors and walkways use contrasting
tiles or blocks in
tessellation patterns.
On the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble
dados that have been sculpted with realistic
bas relief
depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to
emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings and the dado frames
and archway
spandrels have been decorated with
pietra dura
inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits.
The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and
levelled to the surface of the walls.
-
-
-
-
-
Reflective tiles normal exposure
-
-
Interior decoration
Jali screen surrounding the cenotaphs
Tombs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal
Cenotaphs, interior of Taj Mahal
The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional
decorative elements. Here, the inlay work is not pietra dura, but a
lapidary of precious and semiprecious
gemstones.
The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from
each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is
used.
The interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by
a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq
arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each
lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall.
The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each
balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or
jali
cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens,
light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners.
Each chamber wall has been highly decorated with dado bas-relief,
intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in
miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the
complex.
The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the
cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels which have been carved
through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces have been
inlaid in extremely delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming
twining vines, fruits and flowers.
Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the
bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt
beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right and towards
Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's
cenotaph
is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber on a rectangular
marble base of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) by 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in).
Both the base and
casket
are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems.
Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On
the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a
writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western
side, and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex.
His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements:
a larger casket on a slightly taller base, again decorated with
astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him.
On the lid of this casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen
box.
The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively.
The Ninety Nine Names of God are found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, in the crypt including
"O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ".
The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He
traveled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night
of the twenty-sixth of the month of
Rajab, in the year 1076
Hijri."
The garden
Walkways beside reflecting pool
The complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square
charbagh or
Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken
parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, halfway between the tomb and gateway with a
reflecting pool on a north-south axis, reflects the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called
al Hawd al-Kawthar, in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to
Muhammad.
[21] Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and
fountains.
[22] The charbagh garden, a design inspired by
Persian gardens, was introduced to India by the first Mughal emperor,
Babur. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of
Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the
Paradise garden derived from the Persian
paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'. In
mystic
Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal
garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or
mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.
Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or
pavilion
in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main
element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the
discovery of
Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the
Archaeological Survey of India
is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's
design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise.
[23] The similarity in layout of the garden and its architectural features with
the Shalimar Gardens suggest that they may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan.
[24] Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant
roses,
daffodils, and
fruit trees.
[25]
As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden also declined,
and when the British took over the management of Taj Mahal during the
time of the
British Empire, they changed the landscaping to resemble that of
lawns of London.
[26]
Outlying buildings
The Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)—gateway to the Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal complex is bounded on three sides by
crenellated
red sandstone walls, with the river-facing side left open. Outside the
walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's
other
wives,
and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant. These structures,
composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of the smaller Mughal
tombs of the era. The garden-facing inner sides of the wall are fronted
by columned
arcades, a feature typical of Hindu temples which was later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed
chattris, and small buildings that may have been viewing areas or watch towers like the
Music House, which is now used as a museum.
Interior of the Taj Mahal mosque
The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built
primarily of marble which is reminiscent of Mughal architecture of
earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of tomb's archways, and
its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the
tomb. It utilises bas-relief and pietra dura inlaid decorations with
floral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric
designs, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of the
complex.
Taj Mahal mosque or
masjid
At the far end of the complex, there are two grand red sandstone
buildings that are open to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel
the western and eastern walls, and the two buildings are precise mirror
images of each other. The western building is a mosque and the other is
the
jawab (answer), whose primary purpose was architectural
balance, although it may have been used as a guesthouse. The
distinctions between these two buildings include the lack of
mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca) in the
jawab and that the floors of
jawab
have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid with outlines
of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long
hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan,
particularly to his
Masjid-Jahan Numa, or
Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the
sanctuary
hall into three areas, with a main sanctuary and slightly smaller
sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto
an enormous vaulting dome. These outlying buildings were completed in
1643.
Construction
Ground layout of the Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the
walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a
large palace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land.
[27]
An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to
reduce seepage, and levelled at 50 metres (160 ft) above riverbank. In
the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form
the
footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed
bamboo,
workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb.
The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years
to dismantle. According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone
could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was
dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometre (9.3 mi)
tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the
construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks
on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate
post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of
purs,
an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank
and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three
subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.
The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining
parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in
order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was
built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to
differing opinions on "completion". For example, the mausoleum itself
was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the
complex. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties
in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be
about 32 million Rupees at that time.
[28]
The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and
Asia and over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building
materials. The translucent white marble was brought from
Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from
Punjab,
jade and
crystal from China. The
turquoise was from
Tibet and the
Lapis lazuli from
Afghanistan, while the
sapphire came from
Sri Lanka and the
carnelian from
Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.
The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of
architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur
Khan, Makramat Khan, and
Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.
[7][8] Lahauri
[9] is generally considered to be the principal designer.
[10]
A labour force of twenty thousand workers was recruited across northern India. Sculptors from
Bukhara, calligraphers from
Syria and Persia, inlayers from southern India, stonecutters from
Baluchistan,
a specialist in building turrets, another who carved only marble
flowers were part of the thirty-seven men who formed the creative unit.
Some of the builders involved in construction of Taj Mahal are:
- Ismail Afandi (a.k.a. Ismail Khan) of the Ottoman Empire — Turkish architect, designer of the main dome.[29]
- Ustad Isa (Isa Muhammad Effendi) of Persia — Turkish architect, trained by Koca Mimar Sinan Agha of the Ottoman Empire and frequently credited with a key role in the architectural design.[30][31]
- 'Puru' from Benarus, Persia — has been mentioned as a supervising architect.[32]
- Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore – cast the solid gold finial.
- Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi — the chief sculptor and mosaicist.
- Amanat Khan from Shiraz, Iran — the chief calligrapher.[33]
- Muhammad Hanif — a supervisor of masons.
- Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz — handled finances and management of daily production.
History
Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son
Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby
Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife.
[34]
By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly into disrepair. During the time of the
Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and
lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British
viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908.
[35][36] He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a
Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.
[26]
Threats
Protective wartime scaffolding
Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been
raised because of a decline in the water level of the Yamuna River which
is decreasing at a rate of 5 feet a year. In 2010, cracks appeared in
parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were
showing signs of tilting, as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be
rotting due to lack of water. Some persons predict that the tomb may
collapse within 5 years.
[41][42]
Tourism
The Taj Mahal attracts between 2 million and 4 million visitors
annually, including more than 200,000 from overseas. A dual- pricing
system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian
citizens than for foreigners. Most tourists visit in the cooler months
of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near
the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an
electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently
being restored for use as a new visitor center.
[43][44]
The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was originally constructed with
caravanserais,
bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen.
[45] Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of
seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced
New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll
[46] with 100 million votes.
The grounds are open from 6 a.m. to 7 p.m. weekdays, except for
Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between
12 p.m. and 2 p.m. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of
the full moon and two days before and after,
[47] excluding Fridays and the month of
Ramadan. For security reasons
[48]
only five items—water in transparent bottles, small video cameras,
still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses—are allowed inside
the Taj Mahal.
[49]
Myths
Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an
admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and
emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of
the monument.
[50]
A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a
mausoleum to be built in black marble across the Yamuna river.
[51] The idea originates from fanciful writings of
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier,
a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that
Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built.
Ruins of blackened marble across the river in
Moonlight Garden,
Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried
out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had
turned black.
[52]
A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was
demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the
pool in the Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum
could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry
and the positioning of the pool itself.
[53]
No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific
detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan
supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with
the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed
contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design.
Similar claims are made for many famous buildings.
[54] No evidence exists for claims that
Lord William Bentinck,
governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish
the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John
Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of
discarded marble from Agra Fort.
[55]
Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will
cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken
bangles surrounding the silhouette.
[56]
In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed
P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal.
[54][57]
Oak claimed that origins of the Taj, together with other historic
structures in the country currently ascribed to Muslim sultans pre-date
Muslim rule of India and thus, have a
Hindu origin.
[58]
Replicas
See also
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